Freya Stark, a prolific travel writer renowned for her captivating narratives of journeys through various corners of the Middle East, is a major contributor to the world of exploration and travel literature. From the enchanting landscapes of Syria to the mystical allure of Yemen, her literary legacy chronicles a remarkable odyssey through the heart of the Middle East, providing readers with a unique glimpse into the diverse cultures, landscapes, and experiences that define the region. In this essay, we delve into Stark’s evocative account of her expedition through Western Iran towards Mandali in Iraq, where her keen observations and profound insights illuminate the resilient spirit of the tribesmen and the captivating tapestry of their lives.
Route and Landscape
The journey commences from Husainabad, where Freya Stark embarks on a new motor road leading to Kermenshah. Rather than following the conventional path, Stark opts for a shorter, more challenging route that winds through the heart of the region, where Manisht Kuh stands as a prominent landmark. This route is characterised by “shaly spurs of detritus”, coloured in shades of white and grey, and its steep gradients make it impassable in wet weather. Sparse oak trees dot the landscape, concealing shepherd boys who trim branches and toss them down to their waiting flocks below. As Stark’s group negotiates these challenging terrains, their horses teeter on descents so steep that the animals employ their hind legs as brakes.
Travel Challenges
Amidst these geographical challenges, Stark’s mule faces the arduous task of keeping pace with her escort. Shah Riza, however, unprepared for the rapid travel, quickly falls behind and is temporarily lost from sight. It is only when they reconvene with the main road, now running through a densely wooded valley flanked by the imposing Manisht Kuh, that Shah Riza reappears. To continue their journey, the road ascends Kuh Renu and crosses it through a roughly 100-foot-long tunnel. As they traverse this hilly stretch, gangs of men tirelessly work to widen and blast through the rocky terrain. Stark observes the labourers, noting their rugged appearance, in contrast to European counterparts. Drinking water is transported to them in sheepskins, carried on the bowed backs of barefoot porters. A car carrying soldiers struggles to navigate this challenging terrain, with Shah Riza and his mule inadvertently causing a momentary obstruction. Nevertheless, it manages to pass, serving as a tangible symbol of the military’s reliance on roads in this tribal region.
Landscape and People in the Land of Aiwan
Aiwan unfolds as a broad and shallow valley, framed by the formidable presence of Manisht Kuh at its rear. The golden rays of evening sunlight bathed this picturesque valley as Stark and her entourage ventured further into its heart. The landscape here offers a stark contrast to the arduous terrain encountered earlier in their journey, presenting a serene and idyllic scene.
The People of Aiwan
As Stark delves deeper into Aiwan, she cannot help but notice the distinct characteristics of its people. Unlike the tribes she encountered in previous regions, the inhabitants of Aiwan exhibit a higher level of subservience. They do not possess ownership of their lands; instead, their landlord is none other than the Shah himself. Government overseers are dispatched to collect a significant portion of their annual harvest, an arrangement that sets them apart from the fiercely independent tribes encountered elsewhere.
Subservience and Its Implications
This newfound subservience among the Aiwan people marks a significant departure from the unbridled spirit of tribal communities. Stark reflects on the virtues that come hand in hand with the turbulence of the tribesman’s life. While it is not the turbulence itself that garners admiration, it is the inherent virtues that accompany it that make the tribesman’s way of life intriguing. Chief among these virtues is the treasure of freedom that defines their very being. It is this freedom that emancipates them and gives them their distinct identity.
Tribesman’s Freedom and Discipline
The tribesman’s freedom is a genuine and powerful force, albeit one that often manifests as lawlessness. It is this unshackled spirit that defines their character. While discipline is a fundamental aspect of their existence, it is the less developed of the two essential virtues. For the tribesman, freedom takes precedence, and this genuine freedom has the power to liberate their souls.
Civilization and Its Paradox
As Stark contemplates the clash between tribal life and civilization, she raises profound questions about the nature of civilization itself. Civilization, in her view, is a state in which the unburdened mind willingly bows to the authority of law. It is a delicate balance between freedom and discipline that sustains the human spirit. The tribesman’s unique relationship with freedom makes it a primary virtue, while discipline remains secondary. Even the most astute politician acknowledges this truth, using eloquent words to bolster their positions.
It is not the turbulence of the tribesman that one admires: but the virtues that go with his turbulence, so that the two are associated together. His treasure is the freedom of his spirit: when he loses that, he loses everything. And if civilization is that state in which the unshackled mind bows voluntarily to Law, freedom and discipline are the two wheels on which it runs. T h e tribesman does bow to a law of his own , but his apologists must admit that discipline is in him the less developed of the two fundamentals: his freedom is more lawless than it should be.
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The Conflict of Codes
In this tribal land, Stark observes a profound conflict of codes. The tribesman, steeped in the traditions of their ancestors, is deeply skeptical of the alien code imposed by external authorities. To them, the alien code and its complementary virtues of freedom and discipline are inauthentic, driven solely by fear rather than genuine conviction. The tribesman remains faithful to their own code, cherishing their hard-won freedom above all else.
The Aiwan People’s Territory
The Aiwan people inhabit a vast expanse of land that stretches from near the Iraq border along the Gangir stream to its source at Bazan. Their territory extends all the way to the spring pastures of Manisht Kuh, encompassing a broad and varied landscape. It is within this diverse terrain that the Aiwan people have forged their way of life, deeply entwined with the land they call home.
Houses and Grain Storage
One distinctive aspect of the Aiwan people’s lifestyle is their approach to housing and grain storage. Despite the challenges posed by their nomadic existence, they have been encouraged by the government to build small houses in the region. These houses, however, are not used as dwellings; instead, they serve as storage facilities for the abundant grain harvested from the fertile land. This unique practice highlights the importance of agriculture in their livelihoods.
Traditional Grain Storage Methods
While some Aiwan people may opt for these modern houses, an older and more prevalent tradition persists. Many still choose to store their grain in a manner that reflects their deep connection to the land. After the harvest, before the tribe migrates to their winter quarters downstream, they dig holes in the earth. These holes are meticulously lined with chopped straw, creating a sturdy foundation. The grain is then carefully placed within these holes and covered with layers of straw and earth. This traditional method not only preserves their precious harvest but also underscores their reliance on the land’s resources.
Tent Arrangements and Tribal Dynamics
The Aiwan people’s way of life is also reflected in the arrangement of their tents. Stark observes that their tents are organised in two or three rows within the stubble fields. Each row represents a distinct facet of their tribal structure, with the chief of the tribe occupying the first and most esteemed row of tents. This organisation hints at the social hierarchy and order that characterise Aiwan society.
Aristocrats of Spirit
The Aiwan tribesmen, Stark observes, possess a spirit that resonates with the essence of aristocracy. Despite the challenges they face in their uncomplicated lives, there is a distinct advantage in their aristocratic approach to existence. Aristocracy, in this context, is defined by the ability to willingly embrace disciplines that others might consider burdensome. The tribesman’s way of life celebrates their lean emancipation, preferring it over the comforts and material abundance that settled life can offer.
Nomadic Emancipation vs. Settled Comfort
While the tribesman does not go to the same extremes as voluntarily choosing bread and water, they hold steadfast to their lean emancipation over the allure of the comforts of settled behaviour. This choice makes them remarkable individuals. Stark emphasizes that this preference for a life unburdened by material wealth serves as a testament to their spirit, even if it can make them challenging neighbours. In her writings, Freya Stark delves into the essence of this choice, presenting it as not merely a lifestyle but as a profound statement on freedom, resilience, and the intrinsic value of simplicity. Her observations provide a unique lens through which the character and virtues of the tribal peoples she encounters are understood and appreciated. Stark’s narrative captures the admiration she holds for their tenacity and the purity of their existence, further enriching the tapestry of her literary contributions and offering readers a deeper insight into the diverse ways of life she explored during her travels.