D. G. Hogarth, a prominent British archaeologist, is often celebrated for his extensive work in various regions of the Near East. While his archaeological endeavours have left an enduring legacy on the study of ancient civilizations, it is important to recognize that Hogarth made a significant contribution to Arabian Peninsula studies as well. Among his notable works, “The Penetration of Arabia” stands out, offering a fascinating exploration of the history of Arabia and a summation of all accumulated western sources on the subject at the turn of the 20th century.
Hogarth delves into the stories of the earliest known European explorers to Arabia, unravelling narratives that have largely remained obscured. This article aims to provide an overview of these intriguing characters and their roles in the unfolding tapestry of Arabian exploration as recounted by D. G. Hogarth.
Each played a unique role in the unfolding narrative of Arabian exploration during a period marked by the Ottoman-Wahhabi war. Through the lens of Hogarth’s insights, we embark on a journey to unravel the tales and contributions of these early adventurers in the Arabian Peninsula.
Ludovico di Varthema
Long before Niebuhr’s pivotal exploration, Western awareness of Mecca and its enigmatic surroundings was already taking shape through the meticulous accounts of authors and pilgrims. These early chroniclers, driven by a blend of curiosity and religious zeal, crafted detailed descriptions of Mecca, tracing the sacred pilgrimage routes and delving into the captivating landscape that cradled the holy city. The narratives of Moslem travellers provided an initial lens through which the Western world glimpsed Mecca’s secrets, setting the stage for the later contributions of European explorers.
In this intricate tapestry of exploration, Ludovico di Varthema emerges as a luminary figure, casting a vivid light on the mysteries of Mecca and Yemen. Varthema, also known as Barthema and Vertomannus (1470 – 1517), was an Italian traveller recognized for his remarkable journeys in the early 16th century, detailed in his work “Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese.” Born in Bologna, Varthema’s motivation for exploration stemmed from a passion for adventure and the allure of fame associated with successful travel.
In 1502, Varthema departed Europe, reaching Alexandria in 1503. He ascended the Nile to Cairo, travelled to Beirut, Tripoli, Aleppo, and Damascus, where he enlisted in the Mamluk army assuming the name Yunus. Notably, he embarked on a pilgrimage caravan to Mecca and Medina in 1503, providing accurate descriptions of the sacred cities and pilgrim sites.
During his stay in Mecca, Varthema faced accusations of being a Christian from a Muslim merchant. With the assistance of the merchant, he set sail for India from Jeddah but faced imprisonment in Aden on charges of being a Christian spy. Varthema claimed to gain freedom through a love affair with a Yemeni sultana, residing in her palace in Radaa. Eventually, he left Radaa, toured southwest Arabia, including a purported visit to San‘a’, and returned to Aden.
Varthema’s accounts, marked by meticulous detail and keen observation, stand out as a testament to his profound curiosity and courage. His writings not only captured the essence of Mecca but also laid a foundational narrative thread that subsequent European pilgrims would weave into their own experiences. Ludovico di Varthema’s dedicated exploration became a cornerstone, opening a gateway for others to venture into the sacred realms of Mecca and contribute to the evolving saga of its discovery.
Niebuhr’s Pioneering Insights into Hijaz
In the 18th century, the trajectory of Western comprehension of the Hijaz region took a significant turn with the arrival of Carsten Niebuhr in Jidda in 1762. Niebuhr’s expedition, undertaken with the blessing of The king of Denmark, was driven by scientific inquiry and a thirst for knowledge. It marked a watershed moment in the European understanding of this historically veiled territory. His discerning observations became a compass, guiding subsequent explorers through the intricate nuances of the Hijaz landscape.
Niebuhr’s keen eye not only discerned the physical distinctions between the lowland littoral zone and the elevated highland plateau of western Arabia, but also unravelled the geographical tapestry of Mecca. His astute observations delineated the pilgrimage routes, shedding light on the sacred journey millions undertake. Moreover, Niebuhr’s insights into the characteristics of Mecca itself provided a nuanced understanding of the city that reverberates through the annals of Western exploration. As a pioneer in the study of the Hijaz, Niebuhr laid a foundation that enriched European comprehension of this hallowed land.
Ottoman-Wahhabi War 1811
The Ottoman Egyptian army expeditions into Arabia aimed to suppress the Wahhabi movement, leading to the arrival of many of the first European travellers in the region, particularly in Mecca. During this period, the Ottoman Empire was a vast and influential entity, and its military forces were composed of individuals from diverse national backgrounds. The extensive reach of the Ottoman Empire allowed for the inclusion of soldiers and officers from various European nations within its ranks. As the Ottoman forces ventured into Arabia to address the Wahhabi threat, European individuals, serving in official capacities or as part of the military campaigns, found themselves accompanying these expeditions. Consequently, the convergence of the Ottoman military’s multinational composition and the strategic imperative to counter the Wahhabi movement facilitated the introduction of numerous Europeans to the Arabian Peninsula, marking the beginning of their exploration and documentation of the region, including the sacred city of Mecca.
Johann Ludwig Burckhardt
In the annals of Arabian exploration, Johann Ludwig Burckhardt (1784-1817) stands as a luminary figure, bringing forbidden lands into the purview of European knowledge. A Swiss traveller, geographer, and Orientalist, Burckhardt is renowned for rediscovering the ancient Nabataean city of Petra in Jordan and the temples of Abu Simbel in Egypt. Travelling under the alias Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah, he crossed the Red Sea, reaching Jeddah in July 1814, where he fell ill with dysentery for the first time during his journeys. Despite his illness, he demonstrated his Muslim credentials, gaining permission to travel to Mecca. Unprecedented for a European, Burckhardt spent months in Mecca, diligently participating in the rituals of the Hajj. His detailed observations of Mecca’s cityscape and the local culture became invaluable, later influencing the explorations of Richard Burton. After a side trip to Medina, where he faced another bout of dysentery, Burckhardt, exhausted, journeyed through the Sinai Peninsula to Cairo, arriving in June 1815. His journals remain a crucial source of information about these sacred Arabian cities and the Hajj rituals.
Burckhardt’s contributions to European understanding of Arabia were profound and multifaceted. His meticulous explorations provided a wealth of information, unravelling the mysteries of regions hitherto untouched by Western eyes. Through his daring endeavours, Burckhardt became a beacon of enlightenment, illuminating the hidden corners of the Arabian Peninsula for generations to come.
Burckhardt in Jeddah and Mecca
In the bustling markets of Jeddah and Mecca, Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, with a keen eye for detail, unravelled the economic intricacies of these vibrant hubs. His meticulous cataloguing of trades, occupations, and commodities painted a vivid picture of the economic landscape. However, Burckhardt, like a seasoned economic forecaster, foresaw the winds of change with the impending opening of the Suez overland route. His observations, a testament to the pulse of commerce, hinted at the evolving dynamics that would soon reshape the trade routes and economic fortunes of the Red Sea region.
Domingo Badia y Leblich
Domingo Badia y Leblich, another European observer, found himself embroiled in suspicion and intrigue. Accused of espionage, his meticulous documentation of the Wahhabi movement raised questions about the role of European observers in this tumultuous period. Operating under the pseudonym Ali Bey el Abbassi, he was a Spanish explorer and spy during the early 19th century. He is noted for his extensive travels in North Africa and the Middle East. Born in Barcelona in 1767, Badía developed a profound interest in the Arabic language and the customs of Arabian lands. Adopting the alias Ali Bey el Abbassi, he spent two years in Morocco from 1803 to 1805, feigning descent from the Abbasid caliphs. His journey took him to Mecca during the Wahabite occupation, and, by posing as a Muslim, he gained access to forbidden places such as Mecca and the Cave of Machpelah in Palestine. After visiting Tripoli, Cyprus, Egypt, Jerusalem, and Syria, he returned to Constantinople in 1807, where suspicions arose about his true identity. Fleeing to French-occupied Spain, Ali Bey’s life reflects a complex blend of exploration, espionage, and political intrigue.
Ulrich Jaspar Seetzen
Ulrich Jaspar Seetzen (1767–1811) embarked on a pilgrimage to Arabia, driven by the same curiosity that motivated his contemporaries. However, his journey took a tragic turn, ending in his untimely demise. Consequently, written accounts of his exploits are limited to a few letters mainly covering his time in Palestine. Also known as Musa Al-Hakim, Seetzen was a German explorer hailing from Jever, German Frisia, and was renowned for his expeditions in Arabia and Palestine. Despite his initial education in medicine, Seetzen’s true passions lay in natural history and technology. After gaining a government position in Jever in 1802, his long-standing interest in geographical exploration led him to embark on extensive travels.
Seetzen journeyed through Constantinople, Asia Minor, and Aleppo, immersing himself in Arabic language and customs. His detailed journal from April 1808 to March 1809 recounts instructive journeys in Jordan, Palestine, the Sinai wilderness, Cairo, and the Fayum. Notably, he undertook a solo and undercover tour around the Dead Sea disguised as a beggar.
In October 1809, Seetzen reached Mecca as a pilgrim, later converting to Islam and adopting the name Musa Al-Hakim. His explorations in Arabia extended from Medina to Lahak and back to Mocha in Yemen, where his last letters to Europe were penned in November 1810. Unfortunately, in September 1811, Seetzen’s life was cut short under mysterious circumstances as he left Mocha with the intent of reaching Muscat. Allegedly poisoned by his guides on orders from the imam of Sana’a, Seetzen’s untimely demise marked the end of his impactful explorations in the Arabian Peninsula.
Seetzen’s fate underscores the risks and perils faced by European observers in their quest to understand and document the Wahhabi movement. His story becomes a poignant chapter in the broader narrative of European engagement with Arabia during this pivotal era.
Giovanni Finati
Giovanni Finati, a former deserter from the French army, took on a unique role as a renegade in the Egyptian forces during the period of the Egyptian expeditions to Arabia. His narrative, while entertaining and offering insights into the condition of the Egyptian forces, unfortunately lacked significant geographical information. Serving with the Ottoman army and participating in various campaigns, including the siege of Qunfudhah in 1814 and the events in Mecca and Taraba, Finati’s experiences were later recounted during his time as a dragoman to William John Bankes, an Englishman serving in Syria. Despite the absence of valuable geographical details in his account, Finati’s story provides a glimpse into the complex and diverse backgrounds of individuals involved in the Egyptian expeditions to Arabia during this historical period.
Thomas Keith
A Scot of notable distinction, assumed the role of Agha of Mamelukes during a pivotal period in 1815. In a remarkable and perhaps unexpected turn of events, Keith held the prestigious position of the governorship of the Holy City of Medina. Though his tenure was brief, this unique historical episode highlights the diverse individuals who played significant roles during the Egyptian expeditions to Arabia. Keith’s temporary governance of Medina, a city of immense religious and cultural significance, adds an intriguing layer to the complex tapestry of characters and events associated with this period in the Arabian Peninsula.
Maurice Tamisier
Victor Noël Maurice Tamisier, a French traveller, undertook significant voyages in the Red Sea region as part of the Suez Isthmus excavation project. He explored Yemen and Abyssinia during the mid-1830s, receiving recognition for his endeavors with the Legion of Honour and a silver medal from the Société de géographie de Paris in the late 1830s. He is best remembered for his book Voyage en Arabie, Sejour dans le Hedjaz.–Campagne d’Assir .
Tamisier, during the Asir campaign of 1834, encountered an Englishman named Atkins who held a distinctive role as the overseer of a Congreve rocket battery. This encounter with Atkins adds an interesting international dimension to the military operations in the Arabian Peninsula. Atkins, likely involved in the technical aspects of warfare, exemplifies the diverse backgrounds and roles that individuals from various nations played during this campaign. The collaboration or presence of individuals like Atkins in significant military operations further underscores the complexity and global nature of historical events in the Arabian Peninsula during the 19th century.
William John Bankes
Bankes, a prominent figure, employed Giovanni Finati as a dragoman during his service in Syria. Bankes, an English explorer, and parliamentarian, played a key role in various archaeological and exploratory endeavours, particularly in Egypt. His decision to engage Giovanni Finati, a former French army deserter serving in the Egyptian forces, as a dragoman, reflects the complex and diverse networks of individuals involved in exploration and diplomatic missions during the 19th century. This collaboration with Finati provides insight into the interconnected and multicultural nature of exploration efforts in the region during Bankes’s time.
Felix Mengin & Edme-François Jomard
Mengin and Jomard, influenced by the Egyptian expeditions led by Mehemet Ali in the 19th century, contributed significantly to the understanding of Nejd and Asir. Their treatises, derived from information gathered during the military campaigns and occupations in Arabia, provided valuable insights into regions that were previously unexplored or little-known in Western scholarship.
The works of Mengin and Jomard not only showcased the geopolitical impact of the Egyptian expeditions but also demonstrated the collaboration between military endeavours and scholarly pursuits, resulting in comprehensive geographical descriptions of Nejd and Asir. These treatises became integral sources for those seeking to unravel the mysteries of Arabia’s interior, shedding light on the landscapes, cultures, and historical developments of these regions.
The 19th-century influx of European travellers into Arabia was spurred by Ottoman expeditions in the Hijaz. D.G. Hogarth’s work, “The Penetration of Arabia,” skillfully brings together diverse accounts, offering a rich resource for those delving into the realm of early travel narratives on Arabia.