D. G. Hogarth, a prominent British archaeologist of the early 20th century, stands as a towering figure in the realm of Arabian studies, notably contributing to the field with his seminal work, “The Penetration of Arabia.” Within the pages of this profound exploration, Hogarth directs his scholarly gaze toward the region collectively known since antiquity as Tehama, an enigmatic coastal stretch on the western shores of the Arabian Peninsula. Spanning from Aqabah in modern-day Jordan to the Mandeb straits in contemporary Yemen, Tehama beckons as a vast canvas of historical intrigue. The 19th century witnessed a surge of European explorers drawn to unravel its mysteries, with luminaries such as Richard Francis Burton etching their names into the annals of Arabian exploration. In this essay, we embark on a journey through time, retracing the footsteps of these intrepid explorers and unravelling the tapestry of their observations that enriched Western understanding of this particular tapestry of Arabia.
Richard Burton
In the mid-19th century, Richard Francis Burton emerged as a key figure among a new generation of Arabian explorers. Tasked with revising and improving existing knowledge of the Arabian Peninsula, Burton’s focus honed in on the enigmatic western borderlands. His mission held a dual purpose – to unravel the region’s mysteries and to view it through the lens of contemporary science.
Biblical Midian
Burton’s gaze settled upon Midian, a coastal expanse with a seemingly elusive character. Motivated by whispers of precious mineral deposits from an Egyptian hajji, Burton set out on an exploratory journey. His footsteps traced the deep contours of wadis and ascended the formidable granite mountains of Midian, searching for traces of ancient mining centres and valuable minerals.
A Pilgrim Disguised
Noteworthy in his endeavours was Burton’s pilgrimage to Medina and Mecca in 1854. Although driven more by the desire to attain recognition as a hajji than by geographical discoveries, his narrative became a compelling thread in the tapestry of Arabian exploration. Although he provided detailed descriptions on the huand and social geography of Mecca and Medina, his contributions to geographical knowledge of the surrounding areas remained limited.
Nevertheless, Burton’s narrative did expand beyond the urban sprawl. He meticulously identified routes to Mecca, unveiling the Darb ash-Sharki, which skirted the fringe of Nejd. His keen observations also delved into hydrography, noting the westward drainage of the eastern Humaras of the Hamd system, etching a more intricate map of the region.
While his quest for an “Eldorado of Midian” in the form of gold prospecting proved unsuccessful, Burton’s exploration left an indelible mark on our understanding of the Arabian Peninsula. Beyond the allure of hidden treasures, his dedication to documenting the geography, geology, and historical nuances of the region solidified his place as a luminary in Arabian exploration.
Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje
Chistiaan Snouck Hurgronje, a prominent figure in the world of Arabian studies during the late 19th century, embarked on an insightful journey to Mecca in 1885, marking his arrival in Jeddah before spending a significant period on the coast and then venturing into the heart of Mecca. Positioning himself as a learned physician during this time, Hurgronje strategically utilised the interval between the departure and arrival of pilgrim caravans to conduct an extensive study of Meccan society. His stay extended for approximately five months, allowing for an in-depth exploration of various facets of the city.
Hurgronje’s primary focus was on providing a detailed and comprehensive description of Mecca. His observations went beyond the surface, delving into the intricate social dynamics that shaped the city. Notably, he examined street markets for slaves, the significance of holy places, the role of guardians, the dynamics between servile and freedman elements, the architectural landscape of houses, the celebration of festivals, and the influence of guilds. His work is acknowledged for its meticulous analysis of virtues and vices prevailing in Meccan society.
The richness of Hurgronje’s insights stems from his command of the Arabic language and his profound acquaintance with native authorities on the history of the Hijaz. This linguistic proficiency allowed him to navigate the intricacies of Meccan society, offering a nuanced perspective. Despite his intention to extend his exploration to Medina, an unfriendly action by the French vice-consul in Jeddah led to Hurgronje’s expulsion before reaching the historical city.
In the broader context, Hurgronje’s work is recognized as a valuable scientific and historical contribution. It not only complements but surpasses previous European descriptions, including those of Burton and Burckhardt, presenting Mecca from a unique and informed perspective. His detailed examination of Mecca’s social, cultural, and historical dimensions stands as a testament to the depth of his observations and the significance of his scholarly contribution.
James Hamilton
James Hamilton, a figure about whom little is known in the context of European exploration in Hijaz, visited Taif in 1854, marking his expedition with an unnamed companion in his book titles “Sinai, the Hedjaz, and Soudan”. While Hogarth does not delve deeply into the specifics of his journey, it acknowledges his presence as a traveller who followed in the footsteps of earlier explorers like Burton. Hamilton’s exploration of Taif provided additional insights into the region, particularly its high elevation and cool air. Though the narrative doesn’t extensively elaborate on his experiences or observations, it underscores the significance of his journey alongside other European explorers in shedding light on the geography and characteristics of inland Hijaz during the 19th century.
Willhelm Schimper
W. Schimper, a notable botanist whose primary focus was the horn of Arfica, was born in Germany in 1804, made a significant contribution to the exploration of inland Hijaz when he visited Taif in 1836. Schimper’s expedition took place two decades before the renowned explorer Burton. While Hogarth doesn’t provide extensive details about Schimper’s specific findings or experiences, his presence underscores the interdisciplinary nature of early European exploration, combining geographical discovery with botanical study. The mention of Schimper serves as a testament to the diverse expertise and interests that converged in the exploration of the Arabian Peninsula during the 19th century, contributing to a broader understanding of the region’s geography and natural features.
John Keane
Another Englishman of note mentioned in Hogarth’s book is John Keane. His exploration of inland Hijaz is briefly mentioned in the text, noting that he travelled from Mecca to Medina in 1878, following the route established earlier by his Swiss predecessor Johann Burckhardt. Keane’s journey involved skirting Arafat, and upon his return, he took a shorter route to the south. Specific details about Keane’s findings or observations are recorded in his booked titled “six months in Mecca” and “ My journey to Medina”. Hogarth acknowledges his presence in the region during this period of exploration, aligning him with other European travellers who ventured into the Arabian Peninsula in the 19th century.
Charles Huber
D.G. Hogarth touches on Huber’s exploration, a Frenchman who travelled extensively throughout the middle east including Iraq and Syria as well as central Arabia. Hogarth makes mention of Huber’s travels from Kasim to Mecca in 1884. During this journey, Huber found himself halted at the gates of Mecca on suspicion of camel theft. However, he was hastily dispatched by the Sharif under escort to Jidda. While the narrative does not delve into extensive details about Huber’s specific observations or contributions, it places his exploration within the broader context of European endeavours in the Arabian Peninsula during the late 19th century.
Joseph Pons d’Arnaud
D.G. Hogarth introduces Arnaud, a French engineer brought to Arabia in the service of the Ottoman-Egyptian government, as a pivotal figure in the exploration of southern Arabia, notably providing a detailed report on the southern Jauf in 1843. Arnaud’s meticulous observations and copies of Himyaritic texts served to dispel uncertainties regarding the location of the chief Sabaean province. Despite encountering challenges and limitations, including an exceptionally intolerant environment for Jews, Arnaud’s efforts contributed significantly to the understanding of the geography and ancient relics of the region. The narrative underscores the importance of Arnaud’s work in shedding light on the historical and archaeological aspects of the southern Jauf, providing valuable insights into the early civilizations that once thrived in this area of the Arabian Peninsula.
Georg August Schweinfurth
The German botanist and explorer Schweinfurth, was primarily known for his contributions to botany in Africa, although Hogarth highlights his visit to Yemen in 1876. Schweinfurth’s role is particularly notable for criticising the British authorities in Aden for their perceived lack of contribution to dispelling the darkness over southern Arabia. While the text does not delve into extensive details about Schweinfurth’s specific explorations or findings in Yemen, his critique signals a broader perspective on the relationship between political entities and the promotion of scientific understanding. Schweinfurth’s observations, likely rooted in his expertise as a botanist, contribute to the broader narrative of European exploration in Yemen during the latter part of the 19th century, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of scientific inquiry in the region.
Charles Millingen
Hogarth mentions Charles Millingen as an English doctor in the Turkish service who ventured into the Yemeni territory in 1873. Choosing a route north of the Hodeida road, Millingen’s exploration aimed to expand knowledge of this region. While the text does not provide detailed insights into Millingen’s specific observations or experiences during his journey, it recognizes his role as one of the early European explorers in the Yemeni landscape. Millingen’s exploration is situated within the broader context of efforts by various individuals to unravel the geographical and cultural mysteries of the Arabian Peninsula during the 19th century, adding to the collective narrative of Western engagement with this historically significant region. Millingen penned his Yemeni recollections ina volume entitled “Notes of a journey in Yemen”.
Edward Glaser
Edward Glaser, the German archaeologist, emerges in Hogarth’s text as a key figure in the exploration of Yemen, particularly during the late 19th century. His notable achievements include an exploration of the region eastward and northward of the district of Amran in 1884, a journey that significantly expanded the understanding of Yemen’s topography. The narrative underscores the challenges faced by Glaser, including difficulties with the Hashid and Bekil tribes, yet highlights the results of his efforts—considerable advancements in mapping the previously unknown areas and gaining insights into the nature of the Yemen “plateau.” Moreover, Glaser’s exploration in 1889 around Marib and his contributions to the study of Himyaritic inscriptions further enriched scholarly knowledge of the region’s historical and archaeological significance. The text depicts Glaser as a courageous and dedicated explorer who played a crucial role in unravelling the mysteries of Yemen’s landscape and cultural heritage.
Joseph Halevy
Joseph Halevy, a French Jew, embarked on an expedition to Yemen in 1889, during which he adopted an eastern guise, aiming to navigate the challenging terrain. Encountering difficulties in obtaining passage through Hashid and Bekil tribal territory, Halevy ultimately reached Nejran after traversing various landscapes, including arid eastern downs and stretches of sand waste. His exploration uncovered ancient ruins in the Nejran region, shedding light on its historical and archaeological significance. Halévy’s mission to learn more about the ancient Sabaean language was successful in that upon he was ableto return to Europe with hundreds of ancient inscriptions, enabling him to decipher them, and thus succeeding in reconstructing the basics of the Sabaean language.
Giuseppe Caprotti
Giuseppe Caprotti, an Italian merchant, emerges as a significant figure in the exploration of Yemen during the late 19th century. Establishing himself in Sana in 1883, Caprotti became a survivor of two brothers who played a pivotal role in contributing information about the region. His reports, submitted to the Società d’Esplorazione Commerciale of Milan, provided valuable insights into Yemen’s geography, culture, and inscriptions. Despite the challenges posed by the closure of Yemen to explorers after Edward Glaser’s expeditions, Caprotti’s courageous and devoted efforts as an informant played a crucial role in maintaining a connection with the outside world. His contributions, including copies of new inscriptions, proved instrumental in advancing scholarly knowledge of Yemen during a time when direct exploration was restricted.
