Portugal, a maritime powerhouse of the 16th century, was the first European great power to cast its gaze upon the strategically vital waters of the Persian Gulf. As they ventured into this historically rich and geopolitically significant region, the Portuguese established their dominance in the Persian Gulf with a daring series of expeditions and military operations, leaving a significant impact on the course of regional history.
However, Portuguese ascendancy was soon met with the ambitions of other formidable empires, leading to a protracted era of competition and rivalry within the Gulf’s intricate geopolitical landscape. This intensifying struggle among powers ultimately resulted in the gradual waning of Portuguese influence, as new players entered the stage, reshaping the dynamics of dominance in this historically significant waterway. This article delves into the rise and fall of Portuguese power in the Persian Gulf, a tale of early European exploration, conflict, and shifting global alliances.
Turkish Ascendancy in the Persian Gulf
In the year 1534, the Portuguese found themselves relinquishing control over Bahrain and al-Hasa to the formidable Ottomans. This pivotal shift was not merely happenstance but was spurred by the Ottomans responding to local overtures, with regional rulers extending welcoming envoys upon the Ottoman Sultan’s entrance into Baghdad. This significant turn of events marked the dawn of a prolonged era of competition and rivalry, encompassing both Turkish-Portuguese and Persian-Portuguese dynamics within the Gulf. Concurrently, the quest for regional supremacy set the stage for intense rivalries between the Ottomans and Persia.
Turkish Consolidation and Challenge
As 1594 dawned, Turkish forces successfully seized control of the strategic forts of Basra and al-Qatif, while their naval fleet set sail to counter Portuguese dominance within the Gulf’s waters. In their pursuit, they wrought destruction upon Dhofar and subjected the town of Muscat to a relentless bombardment. This period between 1550 and 1559 witnessed a persistent Turkish endeavour to diminish the influence of European powers, primarily carried out through strategic utilisation of local alliances.
The Ottomans capitalised on certain advantages, such as religious affinities resonating with the local populace, who viewed the Portuguese as infidels. Moreover, the Portuguese were often criticised for their perceived cruelty, whereas the Ottomans, being relatively newcomers to the region, initially escaped similar allegations. Nonetheless, despite these diplomatic inroads, the Ottomans remained both quantitatively and qualitatively inferior to their Portuguese counterparts in terms of military prowess.
Revolts, Challenges, and Buffer Islands
Within the realm of al-Qatif, a revolt against the rule of Hormuz found support from the ruler of Basra, triggering the expulsion of the incumbent governor. The indigenous population sought aid from the Ottomans, who swiftly became entangled in the regional power struggle. In 1552, an Ottoman naval fleet, under the astute leadership of Piri Ra‘is, launched a daring campaign aimed at capturing both Hormuz and Bahrain. The Ottomans subsequently secured Basra and al-Qatif, effectively gaining control over the overland trade routes connecting Aleppo, thereby redirecting the flow of coveted East Asian spices through the Gulf, albeit now under Ottoman authority.
Despite their endeavours, the Ottomans fell short of establishing complete dominance over the strategic Strait of Hormuz, leaving Bahrain as an indispensable buffer island that effectively separated and restrained the competing influences of the Portuguese and the Ottoman Empire within the Gulf’s intricate geopolitical landscape.
The Rise of Shah ‘Abbas and Portuguese Challenge
In the late 16th century, Safavid Shah ‘Abbas I, reigning from 1585 to 1629, emerged as a formidable contender to challenge Portuguese dominance in the Persian Gulf. His strategic moves in the early 1600s aimed at reshaping the Gulf’s dynamics.
Bahrain: A Strategic Conquest
In 1602, Persian troops embarked on a significant campaign, invading the strategically located island of Bahrain. Remarkably, the Portuguese, mindful of their relations with Spain and not wishing to disrupt diplomatic ties, opted not to retake Bahrain by force.
Shah Abbas and Changing Gulf Realities
Shah ‘Abbas astutely seized upon changing circumstances, notably the arrival of British and Dutch traders within the Gulf region. These developments would set the stage for a concerted effort to expel the Portuguese from the Hormuz region.
British Entry: A Game Changer
As early as 1613, British involvement in trade with Persia raised concerns among the Portuguese. This newfound British-Persian trade relationship posed a direct challenge to the Portuguese monopoly that had endured for a century within the Gulf.
A British Persian Partnership
Shah ‘Abbas I granted the English a royal grant, permitting them to establish a factory at Jask, a pivotal location for overland trade with Persia. The Portuguese, learning of this move, deemed it necessary to halt English-Persian trade.
Shah ‘Abbas and the Capture of Hormuz
Leveraging British support, Shah ‘Abbas pursued his campaign to capture Hormuz. Initially hesitant due to their charter restrictions on military engagement, the East India Company eventually joined forces, supported by Persian counterparts.
The Fall of Hormuz and Its Implications
On February 10, 1622, the fort at Hormuz fell to the combined Persian and English efforts, marking a pivotal turning point. Mahmud Shah, the ruler of Hormuz, was taken prisoner along with his followers. The capture of Hormuz would significantly impact both the island itself and European influence in the Gulf.
Portuguese-English Naval Clash
In an eventful turn of events, Portuguese forces confronted the English fleet culminating in the The Battle of Hormuz in 1625, marking a significant naval clash in the Persian Gulf between Portuguese forces and a combined fleet of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the English East India Company (EIC). While the battle itself ended inconclusively, its outcome spelled the demise of Portuguese influence in the region. The Portuguese had initially conquered Hormuz in 1507 but lost it to the Persians with English assistance in 1622.
They made multiple attempts to recapture it in the following years. During the battle, a Portuguese fleet led by Nuno Álvares Botelho faced off against an Anglo-Dutch fleet. The engagement was described as one of the largest sea battles in Asian waters at the time, with a staggering exchange of gunfire. Following the battle, a treaty was signed between Persia and Portugal, effectively regulating their commerce in the Persian Gulf, allowing Portugal to establish an emporium in a Persian port. This event marked a turning point in the struggle for dominance in the region, with Portugal losing its grip on the Persian Gulf.
The Decline of Portuguese Dominance
With British influence steadily rising, the decline of Portuguese power became palpable. This shift not only impacted their dominance within the Gulf but also reverberated throughout their broader presence in the East. By the early 18th century, Portuguese political and commercial prominence in the Gulf had largely dissipated.