The 18th-century Danish expedition to Yemen stands as a compelling narrative of intellectual curiosity characteristic of the enlightenment values of 18th century Europe. Led by a distinguished cohort comprising Peter Forskall, Christian Charles Cramer, Frederick Christian von Haven, George William Baurenfeind, and Carsten Niebuhr, this expedition bore the mandate of the Danish king Frederick V, to unravel the mysteries of Yemen. Noteworthy is the assembly of well-qualified members, each bringing a unique expertise encompassing botany, zoology, linguistics, art, mathematics, and surveying. This eclectic blend of skills laid the foundation for a comprehensive exploration that extended beyond geographical boundaries, delving into the diverse domains of cultural knowledge.
Niebuhr’s Yemen Expedition Route
The journey commenced from Copenhagen on the 4th of January in 1761, with the expedition making its first stop at Alexandria before navigating the Nile’s winding course. The route then led to Suez, where Niebuhr explored the majestic Mount Sinai. By October 1762, the party set sail to Jeddah and embarked on an overland odyssey to reach Mocha. After the untimely death of two of the expedition’s members, they ventured to Sanaa, Yemen’s capital, but adverse climatic conditions prompted a return to Mocha.
The expedition’s course continued to Bombay, marked by the unfortunate deaths of both Baurenfeind and Berggren during the journey, and Kramer’s demise shortly after arrival. Niebuhr stood as the lone survivor. A fourteen-month sojourn in Bombay ensued, followed by a homeward journey through Muscat, Bushire, Shiraz, and Persepolis.
Niebuhr’s meticulous copies of cuneiform inscriptions at Persepolis played a pivotal role in advancing the decipherment of cuneiform and laying the foundation for Assyriology. His exploration further encompassed visits to the ruins of Babylon (accompanied by significant sketches), Baghdad, Basra (where he reported on the Mandaeans), Mosul, and Aleppo. A probable stop at the Behistun Inscription occurred around 1764. After touring Cyprus, Niebuhr traversed Palestine, crossed the Taurus Mountains to Bursa, reached Constantinople in February 1767, and finally returned to Copenhagen in November of the same year.
Yemen’s Rich History and Trade Legacy
Yemen, a land steeped in historical significance, has beckoned explorers with its fertile landscapes and vibrant spice trade. Renowned for its historical importance, the region holds a unique allure, drawing the attention of those seeking to unravel its mysteries.
The allure of Yemen was not lost on European powers. Ambitious endeavours by the Portuguese, Turks, and the British East India Company unfolded as they sought to establish trade routes and reap the benefits of Yemen’s prosperity. Each attempt added layers to the tapestry of Yemen’s complex relationship with the outside world.
French Exploration and Coffee Trade
A pivotal moment in Yemen’s history was marked by a French expedition that contributed to the European understanding of the region. This venture also delved into the intricacies of Yemen’s coffee trade, shedding light on the cultivation practices, trading hubs, and economic significance of coffee in the region. The echoes of these historical interactions set the stage for the Danish expedition’s foray into Yemen, as they aimed to explore and document the multifaceted aspects of this captivating land.
Entrance into Yemen
Embarking on an odyssey filled with anticipation, the Danish expedition approached Yemen, commencing their exploration from the port city of Jidda in modern day Saudi Arabia. The arid landscapes and vibrant culture of Yemen awaited the inquisitive gaze of the intrepid explorers. As the explorers traversed the diverse terrain, the warmth of Yemen’s reception surpassed their expectations. The locals, in their generosity, extended a positive embrace, creating an atmosphere of hospitality that eased the challenges of exploration.
Assimilating into Yemeni Culture
In an attempt to Immerse themselves in the fabric of Yemeni society, the explorers donned native attire, signalling a harmonious blend with the local culture. This act of cultural assimilation facilitated their journey, allowing them to traverse various regions with a deeper understanding and appreciation for the intricate tapestry of Yemen’s way of life. The expedition’s adoption of native dress became a bridge that connected them to the heart of Yemen’s rich cultural diversity.
Traversing Tehama’s Lowlands
The Danish expedition ventured first into Yemen’s Tehama lowlands, a region that today lies firmly within the borders of Saudi Arabia, but during the 18th century was part of the Yemeni Zaidi Imamate. Nowadays this geographical expanse is delineated into dual segments—Tihāmat Al-Ḥijaz (the northern section) and Tihāmat ʿAsīr (the southern counterpart). The Yemeni sector seamlessly extends from Tihamat ʿAsir. This expanse, though confined, reaches its zenith in breadth to the south of Medina and Mecca. Yanbu, Jeddah, and Al Qunfudhah thrive within the Hijazi domain of Tihamah, while the Asiri-Yemeni realm encompasses Jizan and Al Hudaydah. The temperatures experienced in Tihamah are purportedly among the most scorching globally. Characterised by dusty expanses and challenging terrain. Navigating through this arid landscape, the explorers uncovered the unique features that distinguished Tehama as an integral part of Yemen’s geographical tapestry.
Scaling Majestic Heights
Ascending to higher altitudes, the expedition explored the towering mountains that graced Yemen’s landscape. These elevated regions, with their breathtaking vistas, provided a stark contrast to the lowlands. The exploration of the higher mountains allowed the Danish team to witness the geographical diversity that defined Yemen’s topography.
Journey to Beit el-Fakih – The Coffee Hub
Guided by their quest for knowledge, the explorers directed their attention to Beit el-Fakih, a renowned coffee metropolis known to European traders as a pivotal hub in the coffee trade. The city’s significance as buyers of coffee added a layer of economic importance to the expedition, as the explorers delved into the intricacies of the coffee commerce that shaped Yemen’s economic landscape.
The Tranquil Atmosphere of Yemen
During the expedition’s sojourn in Yemen, the explorers found themselves immersed in a relatively peaceful and tolerant milieu. The serene ambiance that enveloped the region at that time allowed the Danish team to observe Yemen’s society in a state of harmonious coexistence, unmarred by the conflicts that would later punctuate its history.
Seasonal Struggles
Embarking on their odyssey through Yemen, the Danish expedition encountered formidable adversaries not only in the terrain but also in the capricious temperament of the seasons. The harsh reality of seasonal challenges tested the resilience of the explorers, subjecting them to a slew of health issues that would become an unwelcome companion on their journey.
Merciless Heat
The unforgiving Yemeni sun, casting a mean temperature of 30°c upon the expedition, emerged as a relentless foe. The sweltering conditions, compounded by the arduousness of daytime travel, took a toll on the well-being of the party members. The scorching heat became a formidable adversary, threatening to undermine the physical robustness of the intrepid explorers.
Retreat to Beit el-Fakih
In the face of mounting health concerns, the expedition wisely chose Beit el-Fakih as a sanctuary for respite. This strategic pause allowed the weary explorers to confront and ameliorate the health challenges that had manifested during their arduous journey. Beit el-Fakih, with its restorative embrace, became a pivotal waypoint, offering both solace and remedy to the beleaguered members of the expedition.
Trials in Mokha
Continuing their journey southward the next destination was the coffee trading hub of Mokha, located on Yemen’s south western coast. The shadows of history cast a nuanced hue on the difficulties faced by the European contingent. Unbeknownst to them, the French East India Company had laid siege to the city a quarter-century prior, sowing seeds of mistrust towards Europeans. The repercussions of past endeavours echoed through time, contributing to the challenges encountered by the Danes in Mokha. The spectre of historical decisions added a layer of complexity to their diplomatic engagements, highlighting the enduring consequences of geopolitical manoeuvres.
Commemorating Von Haven
In the heart of Mokha, the Danish expedition faced an unforeseen tragedy with the passing of Frederick Christian von Haven, the group’s linguistic expert. The demise of one of their own cast a sombre shadow over the group, altering the dynamics of their exploration mission.
In a poignant display of cross-cultural camaraderie, English assistance extended a helping hand during the final rites for Von Haven. The collaborative effort to ensure a burial in the European tradition marked a touching gesture amidst the complexities of foreign soil. The explorers found solace in the shared humanity that transcended national boundaries.
Amidst the grief that enveloped Mokha, English politeness emerged as a beacon of compassion. The funeral became a testament to the interconnectedness of diverse cultures, fostering a sense of unity even in the face of loss. The graceful conduct observed during this solemn occasion underscored the shared humanity that unites individuals across geographical divides.
Ascending to Taiz
Embracing the call of higher altitudes, the Danish expedition redirected its course inland and eastwards to Taiz, a strategic locale on the path to Sana. The ascent into the mountains unveiled new landscapes, promising both challenges and revelations for the intrepid explorers.
Refreshment and Risk
Nestled at a higher elevation, Taiz unfolded as a terrain offering respite amidst the rugged journey. However, this newfound refreshment came at a cost – a diminished sense of security compared to the familiar Tehama lowlands. The expedition found itself at the crossroads of opportunity and vulnerability in the embrace of Taiz.
Forskall’s Tragic Demise
Yerim, a waypoint on the journey to Sana, became an unexpected stage for tragedy as Peter Forskall, a luminary of the expedition and the group’s scientific expert, succumbed to a serious illness. His untimely death cast a shadow over the expedition, leaving a void that would be mourned by his comrades and felt deeply by the entire scientific venture.
Niebuhr’s Lament: Echoes of Loss
Carsten Niebuhr, the lieutenant of engineers and meticulous chronicler of the expedition, mourned Forskall as the ablest among them. His poignant lament echoed through the expedition, a poignant reminder of the human toll exacted by the pursuit of knowledge in the uncharted territories of Yemen.
Sana’s Gracious Embrace
Despite the sombre note that accompanied their arrival, the expedition reached Sana on the 16th of July. The welcome extended by the Imam served as a gracious counterpoint to the earlier trials, offering a moment of respite and acknowledgment of the scientific endeavour that had unfolded in the wake of Forskall’s passing. The city of Sana became both a destination and a reflective pause in the expedition’s arduous journey.
A Harrowing Return to Mokha
Bearing the burden of both geographical exploration and the weight of mortality, the expedition, now battered and broken in health, retraced its steps to Mokha. The once-promising venture had become a crucible of challenges, marked by the loss of Forskall and the toll of the unforgiving Yemeni terrain.
Francis Scott’s Compassion
Amid the scorching heat of August, a glimmer of humanity emerged in the form of British merchant Francis Scott. Recognizing the plight of the beleaguered explorers, Scott extended a helping hand, providing both assistance and passage. His benevolence became a crucial turning point, ushering the debilitated party onto a ship bound for Bombay.
Mokha’s Fading Echoes
As Mokha, a city steeped in historical significance, witnessed the departure of the beleaguered expedition, it marked the end of a tumultuous chapter. The echoes of their struggles lingered, swallowed by the vast expanse of the Arabian Sea, carrying with them the stories of perseverance and the unyielding pursuit of knowledge.
Fateful Waters
As the beleaguered expedition sailed towards Bombay, the merciless sea claimed its toll. In the shadows of despair, Baurenfeind and Berggren succumbed to the relentless forces that accompanied them across the Arabian Sea. Their names, now etched in the annals of maritime misfortune, became a poignant testament to the perils of exploration.
Cramer’s Silent Departure
With the turn of the year in India, the expedition faced yet another sombre note. Christian Charles Cramer, a stalwart member of the initial Yemen-bound party and the group’s physician, breathed his last. The land that held the promise of discovery had become a graveyard for aspirations, and Cramer’s silent departure echoed across the vast Indian landscape.
Niebuhr’s Unyielding Return
Despite the adversities that marred the expedition’s journey, Carsten Niebuhr, the indomitable lieutenant of engineers, rose from the ashes of loss. In a testament to his resilience, Niebuhr, having parted ways with his fallen comrades, retraced his steps to Arabia. January of 1765 saw his return to Muscat, an enduring figure in the face of both triumph and tragedy. In many ways, Niebuhr’s return journey from Bombay to Denmark was more challenging and illuminating in that the route he chose took him through Persia, Mesopotamia, through the holy lands and Anatolia before returning to Europe.
Carsten Niebuhr: The Scribe of Discovery
In the aftermath of the arduous journey, Niebuhr’s responsibility did not wane. Bearing the weight of invaluable reports and notes, he became the guardian of wisdom gathered from the heart of Arabia. His return to Denmark marked not only the end of a physical journey but also the beginning of a scholarly endeavour. The knowledge he brought back would shape European perceptions of Yemen and stand as a testament to the enduring spirit of exploration.
Niebuhr’s Literary Legacy
In the quiet confines of post-expedition life, Carsten Niebuhr’s pen continued its dance. The culmination of his experiences and observations manifested in a literary masterpiece. In 1772, the world bore witness to the birth of Niebuhr’s travel narrative, a written testament to the expedition’s odyssey across the Arabian expanse.
The Unveiling of Yemen
The pages of Niebuhr’s narrative unfolded a vivid tapestry of Yemen, offering readers a portal into the heart of this ancient land. Written in German, the narrative was a revelation, a compendium of knowledge meticulously gathered during the arduous journey. Through Niebuhr’s words, Yemen ceased to be a distant realm; it became a living, breathing entity with a rich history, cultural tapestry, and economic nuances.
The Ripple Effect
Niebuhr’s narrative, however, was not confined to linguistic boundaries. Like a ripple traversing a vast pond, subsequent editions and translations disseminated the treasure trove of information to far-reaching corners of the globe. The echoes of Yemen’s secrets reverberated through the corridors of academia, shaping the intellectual landscape of Europe and beyond, including an English edition titled “Travels through Arabia” published in 1792.
Niebuhr’s literary legacy stands as a beacon of travel writing, illuminating the path for those who seek to understand the intricacies of distant lands. The publication of his travel narrative became more than a record; it became a bridge connecting cultures and a chronicle preserving the essence of Yemen for generations to come.
Cultural Threads Woven
Beyond the physical landscape, the expedition delved into the rich tapestry of Yemen’s culture. Niebuhr’s narrative, a literary opus, painted portraits of a relatively peaceful and tolerant society—a stark contrast to later periods marked by conflict. The narrative not only chronicled the expedition’s interactions but became a cultural time capsule, capturing Yemen in a moment of historical tranquillity.
Economic Tapestry Unraveled
As the expedition unfolded, so did the economic intricacies of Yemen. The spice-laden winds of trade, the historical spice route, and attempts by earlier European entities to establish commercial footholds—all unfolded like chapters in an economic saga. The expedition’s documentation became a key to deciphering Yemen’s economic activities, offering a nuanced understanding of its role in the global trade network.